Flaming Lotus: Sacrifice in Buddhist Practice

The self-immolation of Buddhist monk Thich Quang Duc at a busy intersection in Saigon on June 11, 1963 utterly shocked most Americans who could not fathom why a person would commit such a horrific act. Without trying to explore any feasible explanations within this man’s religion, many decided that he was probably just a fanatic who wanted to make a political statement in the most appalling manner possible. Was that the case? Was Quang Duc simply a political activist pushed to the limit, or was he acting with motivation derived from his religion? To answer this question, one must evaluate the function of sacrifice within the Buddhist tradition.

As with many religions, Buddhism offers its practitioners the opportunity for different levels of involvement on the spiritual path towards enlightenment. This spectrum of involvement ranges from one who practices with minimal sacrifice primarily to achieve personal spiritual gain to one who sacrifices his or her life with the hope of benefiting all of humanity. Furthermore, as a person moves along this spectrum from little to great sacrifice, one also harbors a growing commitment to the spiritual welfare of all sentient beings. As the kinds of practice and sacrifice are explained for different levels of involvement in the religion, it will become clear that the relative commitment to help others directly correlates to the stage of practice and sacrifice. Additionally, an intriguing comparison will be made between these concepts within Buddhism and very similar concepts with the Jewish tradition of mystical or contemplative death.

When exploring the specific function of sacrifice within Buddhism, it will be necessary to understand some of the fundamental beliefs that lay the groundwork for the religion as a whole. The Buddha was an actual historical figure who lived around 350 BCE in northern India. After his own spiritual awakening, he taught four basic lessons about the nature of life. The Four Noble Truths state

1) that life is qualified by suffering
2) that suffering has a cause
3) that there can be an end to suffering
4) that there is a path describing how to end suffering [1]

In further explanation, the cause of suffering is attachment to objects or feelings which are ultimately impermanent. If one does not learn how to overcome such attachment, one will forever be limited to the cycle of rebirth, or reincarnation, called samsara. Therefore, the goal of Buddhist practice is to first improve one’s chances for a more favorable birth in the next life and to eventually become liberated from samsara altogether. [2] The sacrifices that will be described in the remainder of this essay are some of the actions that can be taken to achieve the goal of liberation.

Another important concept has to do with the notion of the Self. Prior to the Buddha, many yogis believed that every person has a permanent Self, or soul, that one must strive to know and understand through yogic meditation. The Buddha rejected this theory and developed his own theory of anatta, or no-Self. He explained that it is our attachment to our sense of identity, our bodies, and our lives that makes us want to imagine that there is something permanent and eternal within us. However, as the Buddha already believed that nothing is permanent, it logically follows that there is no permanent aspect to our being as well. If we did have permanent Selves, then we would not have the ability to learn, grow, and change throughout life as we clearly do. Therefore, it is central to the Buddhist practice to try to understand the theory of anatta in order to be able to give up one’s attachment to this life, this body, and this mind. [3] It may already be clear to the reader that the theory of anatta will have an important place in the discussion of sacrifice.

To begin the study of sacrifice within Buddhism, it will first be helpful to narrow the scope of study, as there are numerous sects of Buddhism. Since the question posed at the beginning of this essay related to the Vietnamese monk Thich Quang Duc, a description of the kind of Buddhism found in Vietnam is in order. Vietnamese Buddhist scholar Thich Thien-An states, “Buddhism in Vietnam is synthetic and unified rather than divided and sectarian.” [4] He further describes how influences from both India and China have led to a combination of Theravada Buddhism (more focused on self-liberation) and Mahayana Buddhism (more focused on liberation of all sentient beings) [5] , although modern scholars generally classify Vietnam as predominantly Mahayana. These influences can no doubt explain the different practices and levels of sacrifice within Vietnamese Buddhism as a whole.

The first level of sacrifice is focused primarily on improving one’s chances for a more favorable life in the future. This level of sacrifice best applies to laypeople who do not want, or are not able, to achieve the level of sacrifice necessary for monastic life, which will be described shortly. Therefore, most laypeople accept that they will probably not achieve liberation from samsara in the near future, but they are certainly interested in doing what they can to ensure a promising rebirth.

First of all, laypeople can take up to five vows which include the vows to 1) not kill humans, 2) not steal, 3) not engage in sexual misconduct, 4) not use intoxicants, and 5) not lie about spiritual attainments. [6] The goal of these vows is to restrain people from committing nonvirtuous deeds, thereby not causing harm to anyone. His Holiness the fourteenth Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, also encourages similar behavior for the novice practitioner of Buddhism. He explains that the basic practice for individuals “requires the self-awareness needed to refrain from physical and verbal actions that bring harm to others.” [7] By not causing harm, a person is not accumulating bad karma, thereby improving his or her chances of a favorable rebirth.

A person at this stage of practice is also encouraged to try to eliminate as much craving as possible, as craving is the primary cause of suffering. As described by Dr. David J. Kalupahana of the University of Hawaii:

This passage shows that while the householder is the most amateur of Buddhist practitioners, he or she is still exercising a particular level of sacrifice in order to refrain from doing harm and to remain virtuous. Such a person makes any number of sacrifices, such as giving up alcohol, living simply instead of lavishly, remaining calm when one wants to lash out in anger, and treating others with compassion even when one is angry or hurt.

These actions may not seem extremely important or particularly difficult, but they all require a certain amount of effort and awareness and a commitment to do what is necessary to act virtuously. Therefore, the sacrifice a person makes is often to not react the way one would like to react in unpleasant situations. For many, that kind of sacrifice is quite difficult indeed.

The sacrifices described for one who desires a better rebirth actually do end up benefiting others, even though the overall intention of the actor is for personal benefit. Therefore, sacrifice for a better rebirth establishes one end of the spectrum of sacrifice within Buddhism, and it illustrates the correlation that minimal sacrifice equals minimal commitment to other people. On the other hand, the next level of sacrifice displays a growing interest in the welfare of others.

The next level of sacrifice on the spectrum would include those people whose primary goal is total self-liberation. These people usually find monastic life to be the best way to work towards their goal, due to the increased level of sacrifice and the decreased level of worldly distraction.

Perhaps the most difficult sacrifice for Buddhist monks and nuns who enter a monastery is the sacrifice of nearness with family outside of the community and the sacrifice of their possibility of raising a family of their own. Many Westerners may consider the vow of celibacy to be the most difficult of all the sacrifices, but it does not seem to cause nearly as much distress as may be expected. Monks and nuns are expected to practice morality through a “thoroughly disciplined way of life, reasoned to cause harm neither to oneself nor to others. For the Buddha’s monks this meant a life of mendicancy, of poverty but not of self-mortification, of celibacy and of gentle honesty.” [9]

Furthermore, monks and nuns are expected to engage in extensive meditation and the cultivation of wisdom such that they can come to see the world as it is. The amount of time, effort, and concentration required to live this kind of life certainly involves the sacrifice of many worldly pleasures, entertaining activities, and other aspects of life that many can not imagine living without. Other sacrificial practices required for those engaged in the monastic life include eating only one or two small meals a day for which one must beg and sleeping in a minimally comfortable bed. Another function of monks and nuns is to be available to the laity who sometimes try to accumulate merit for themselves through good works for the monks, such as feeding or clothing them. [10] For example,

All of these sacrifices describe the kind of life that the typical monk or nun would experience. However, it is important to remember that Vietnamese Buddhism is Mahayana Buddhism, meaning that there is an emphasis on working for the liberation of all sentient beings. His Holiness Kyabje Trijang Rinpoche, junior tutor of His Holiness the Dalai Lama, explains that there are three “scopes,” or levels, to Mahayana Buddhist practice. First, one must practice renunciation in order to remove materialistic distractions from one’s life. Next, one must try to understand the Dharma (teachings of the Buddha) and begin to practice greater compassion towards others. The most advanced level involves the commitment to help all sentient beings achieve liberation. [12] A bodhisattva is one who has made this commitment.

Thus, for the purpose of continuing to describe the spectrum of sacrifice and its correlation with a commitment to help others, the steps explained by Trijang Rinpoche can be applied to the spectrum after the description of one who practices for a better rebirth. As stated by Trijang Rinpoche,

This passage implies that even if a person has the intention of eventually helping others to achieve liberation, that person must first have a strong foundation in Buddhist practice as a prerequisite. Furthermore, the three scopes discussed by Trijang Rinpoche also describe greater and greater degrees of sacrifice in the form of intensity of practice and the amount of effort and concentration needed to progress from one level to the next. Consequently, it is clear that as the magnitude of sacrifice increases, one also becomes more committed to other beings and their liberation.

Those who have taken the bodhisattva vow to remain in samsara until all sentient beings are liberated are mentioned frequently and highly praised in Buddhist texts and by Buddhist scholars. Eighth-century Indian master Shantideva’s Guide to the Bodhisattva’s Way of Life states

Moreover, the Dalai Lama explains that a bodhisattva should think of him or herself as belonging to all other sentient beings, such that his or her “entire being and existence” are available to others. [16] The Dalai Lama also explains that an effective method of cultivating bodhicitta is the practice of “Exchanging Self for Others.” In this method, a person realizes that he or she is just like all other beings, striving for happiness and trying to avoid pain, all the while suffering throughout life. Also, one realizes that all people are dependent upon one another; therefore, one develops a sense of responsibility for everyone else. Another important part of this practice is to be able to understand the theory of anatta, or no-Self, which was described earlier. If one can become unattached to the idea of his or her own being, then it becomes much easier to imagine devoting one’s life to others. [17]

Likewise, a person using the method of Exchanging Self for Others can imagine placing the suffering of others upon him or herself and giving away his or her happiness to benefit others. According to the Dalai Lama,

These two passages may begin to explain the motivation behind the self-immolation of Thich Quang Duc in 1963 during the Vietnam War.

The image of Thich Quang Duc burning to death covered American news media and horrified much of the Western world. At the time, his death was commonly understood to have been a most distasteful and shocking attempt to protest the war in Vietnam. However, after this study of the nature of sacrifice within the Mahayana Buddhist religion, it seems that Quang Duc’s self-immolation may have stemmed from his commitment to ease the suffering of the people of Vietnam. Furthermore, there is indeed evidence in Buddhist texts and from the explanations of Buddhist scholars that his action was not at all extrinsic to his religion.

The situation in Vietnam at that time was very grim for many Buddhists and non-Buddhists alike. Oppression, persecution, and religious discrimination against those who were not Roman Catholic were plaguing the people of Vietnam, many of whom felt that they had too much to lose to fight or protest against the government. Therefore, the Buddhist monks and nuns found themselves in a situation where they were the only people who could stand up for everyone else and try to end the suffering. Because they had no families of their own and because they had cultivated a better sense of detachment from their current lives through understanding anatta, they were better equipped to take action in the face of clear danger. In explanation,

Obviously, in such a tense social climate, serious action needed to be taken. However, the question of whether or not self-immolation had any basis in Buddhist history has yet to be answered. Indeed, there are several stories and historical accounts of Buddhist practitioners in the past who burned themselves to death for different reasons. First of all, in the famous sixth-century Chinese text Lives of Eminent Monks, there are several categories for different kinds of monks, including translators, meditators, and self-immolators! [22] Although this particular source does not include any further explanation, apparently self-immolation occurred with enough frequency to warrant the distinction of its own category.

Next, in the well-known Lotus Sutra, a bodhisattva named Sarvasattvapriyadarsana chooses to pay homage to a Buddha who has passed away by completely burning away both of his arms. Another Buddha then exclaims, “He undertook the practice of giving by abandoning his body immeasurable hundreds of thousand of times…If there is anyone who sets forth and wishes to attain the highest enlightenment, he should pay homage…by burning either a finger or a toe.” [23] While this account is merely a story about self-immolation as a form of paying homage, there are historical accounts where monks acted with the same motivation. For example, in the year 1034 CE “two enlightened Zen monks, Nghiem Bao-Tinh and Pham Minh-Tam burned themselves in tribute to the Buddhadharma [24] .” [25] Buddhist scholar Thich Thien-An then explains that these examples of self-immolation are evidence that the “sacrifices by self-burning” of Thich Quang Duc, Thich Tieu-Dieu (Thien-An’s father), and the other monks and nuns in 1963 to protect freedom of faith in Vietnam were not unusual. [26]

Thien-An further explains that devotional sacrifice by self-immolation is for the purpose of eliminating any karmic obstacles to enlightenment and to purify oneself, as in the story of the bodhisattva above. The second form of sacrifice by self-immolation is for the purpose of

Clearly, this particular Vietnamese Buddhist scholar believes that the modern self-immolations in Vietnam have a definite basis in Buddhists texts and history.

To further support the idea that the self-immolations in the 1960’s were motivated by the Buddhist religion, notable Vietnamese Buddhist scholar Thich Nhat Hanh firmly believes that these acts were acts of sacrifice for the sake of the people and their suffering. He explains

As Nhat Hanh personally knew Quang Duc and another young woman who died the same way, Nhat Chi Mai, he has made a strong effort to try to explain their motivation. Much like the method of Exchanging Self for Others, Nhat Hanh believed that the self-immolators wanted to take the suffering of the Vietnamese people onto themselves to help relieve their suffering. He believes that self-immolation was also a method of purification for both the self-immolator and for the people whose suffering he or she assumed. [29] Some people may believe that self-immolation contradicts a Buddhist’s vow not to harm oneself or others. Self-immolation certainly appears to be a serious form of self-harm; however, Nhat Hanh explains that the compassionate intent of self-immolation overshadows the argument that it is harmful. [30]

Clearly, even though some might mistakenly believe that the actions of self-immolators are simply fanatical protests and suicides [31] , Buddhist texts, history, and scholars all describe these actions as the ultimate sacrifice on behalf of other people. Therefore, the other end of the spectrum of sacrifice is definitely occupied by Buddhist self-immolators whose actions show both supreme sacrifice and supreme concern for the welfare of others.

Thich Quang Duc’s self-immolation unmistakably falls under the logic of sacrifice within Mahayana Buddhism, as it conforms to all the examples of motivation described earlier for bodhisattvas. His commitment to help others is quite clear. Also, he represents a striking example of Exchanging Self for Others, as he tried to forget his own suffering in order to assume the suffering of all the people of Vietnam. Furthermore, he must have been extremely well versed in the theory of anatta. Had he had any attachment to an idea of “himSelf,” then he likely would not have been able to sacrifice his own life, particularly in such a painful manner. Had his death been anything other than the ultimate compassionate sacrifice, Quang Duc would probably not be venerated as he is today in Vietnam with his relics, his pictures, and his name being worshipped. [32]

As a final topic of discussion, the comparison has been made between Thich Quang Duc’s sacrifice and the sacrifice of Jesus Christ. While that subject would be interesting to explore, there is still the question of whether or not Jesus’ death was actually a sacrifice or not—a subject that will be avoided in this essay. Instead, a striking comparison can be made between the sacrifice of self-immolators in Buddhism and the sacrifice of Jewish practitioners who perform mystical or contemplative death.

In order to show that the nature of sacrifice within Buddhism does not exclusively apply to that tradition, it is interesting to make the comparison to mystical death within Jewish mysticism, which expands the idea of religious martyrdom to include non-physical methods.

The Zohar, a work of thirteenth-century Spanish Kabbalah, describes one account of this type of mystical death and its purpose. First, a person prays the Shemoneh Esreh (“Eighteen Blessings”) in order to build up spiritual strength, much as a bodhisattva does through renunciation and meditation. For the Jewish practitioner, this prayer also leads to the unification of the female and male aspects of divinity, which have previously been separated. The person then engages in Nefilat Appayim, which is the act of falling upon one’s face and spiritually surrendering one’s soul to God in a mystical death. [33]

The purpose of these actions is twofold. First, the unification of the aspects of the divine which have been scattered is an important goal within Jewish mysticism. Secondly, the total surrender to mystical death is used to rid a person of sins which are usually only forgiven in actual death. This way, a person is purified and reborn without sin.

There are several parallels here with sacrifice in Buddhism. First, sacrifice (or death) for the purpose of unification of the aspects of another (or for the benefit of another) sounds much like sacrifice for the awareness and spiritual benefit of others as described for bodhisattvas and self-immolators. Second, a person’s total surrender of life and willingness to accept death if it is warranted in the Jewish tradition is much like a bodhisattva’s willingness to suffer, die, or burn oneself to death if needed. Lastly, when the Jewish mystic is “No longer attached to life, he throws himself into the abyss of existence in the ultimate act of submission.” [34] This non-attachment to life is also familiar from the previous discussion of anatta in Buddhism.

A similar account of mystical death is given by Isaac Luria, a notable kabbalist from the sixteenth century. To the description from the Zohar, Luria adds that, while preparing for mystical death, the male adept unites the “Four Worlds” of the cosmos and bonds with the divine feminine in a manner that resembles sexual intercourse. Next, in a manner resembling orgasmic release, the adept descends into the lowest of the worlds in order to gather divine sparks from each successive world on his journey back up through the worlds. These divine sparks are considered to be actual parts of God’s body which has been scattered and must be reunited. [35]

The most important comparison that can be made here is to recognize the similar purpose of ultimate benefit for another entity or entities in both Mahayana Buddhism and Jewish mysticism. In the Buddhist tradition, bodhisattvas vow to remain in samsara (or to continue suffering) for the benefit of all other sentient beings who must be liberated as well. Although there is no real parallel with the divine in Buddhism, the comparison can still be made that Jewish mystics also commit to possible suffering in the form of death as they descend into the lowest worlds of evil in order to rescue the divine sparks which are trapped. In this way, Jewish mystics are also devoted to the benefit of all, since reuniting the divine body will benefit everyone.

One last comparison that can be made involves the Jewish prayer called the Shema, which is a foundation of Jewish liturgy. For Jewish mystics, the recitation of this prayer involves one’s willingness to actually die in the face of religious persecution. More specifically, it was believed to be superior for one to die rather than deny one’s religion. [36] This willingness to die for one’s religion is clearly paralleled by the willingness of the self-immolators in Buddhism to die for the sake of protecting people of Buddhist faith from persecution by the Vietnamese government.

While a deeper exploration of this kind of comparison between Jewish mystical death and Buddhist sacrifice would no doubt reveal even more intriguing similarities, it is sufficient for the purpose of this essay to end here. The significance of this comparison is simply to show that very similar kinds of thought are expressed in the idea of sacrifice within two extremely different religious traditions.

After studying the circumstances and background of self-immolation in Buddhism, it becomes quite disturbing that there have ever been situations in which anyone felt the need to die in such a way. What is even more disturbing is that so many people in the world were more troubled by the manner of Thich Quang Duc’s death than they were with the reason for his death. It seems that as long as people will not consider the causes behind such problems, then they are doomed to be shocked by the occasionally gruesome results.

Bibliography

Berrigan, Daniel and Thich Nhat Hanh. The Raft is Not the Shore. Boston: Beacon Press, 1975.

Fine, Lawrence. “Contemplative Death in Jewish Mystical Tradition,” from (Ed.) Margaret Cormack, Sacrificing the Self: Perspectives on Martyrdom and Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Gyatso, His Holiness the Dalai Lama Tenzin. An Open Heart. New York: Little, Brown, and Company, 2001.

Gyatso, His Holiness the Dalai Lama Tenzin. How to Practice. New York: Pocket Books, 2002.

Hanh, Thich Nhat. Vietnam: Lotus in a Sea of Fire. New York: Hill and Wang, 1967.

Kalupahana, David J. Buddhist Philosophy. Honolulu: The University Press of Hawaii, 1976.

Kumarajiv. Translated by Kubo Tsugunari and Yuyama Akira. The Lotus Sutra. Berkeley, CA: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 1993.

Lopez Jr., Donald S. The Story of Buddhism. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, Inc., 2001.

Rinpoche, His Holiness Kyabje Trijang. “The Three Scopes,” (Ed.) Glen H. Mullen and Dr. Nicholas Ribush. Teachings at Tushita. New Delhi: Mahayana Publications, 1981.

Thien-An, Thich. Buddhism and Zen in Vietnam. Vermont and Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle Company, Inc., 1975.

[1] Donald S. Lopez Jr., The Story of Buddhism (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, Inc., 2001), 15.

[3] Michael Carrithers, The Buddha (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 40-45.

[4] Thich Thien-An, Buddhism and Zen in Vietnam (Vermont and Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle Company, Inc., 1975), 24.

[6] The Story of Buddha, 167.

[7] His Holiness The Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso, How to Practice (New York: Pocket Books, 2002), 27-29.

[8] David J. Kalupahana, Buddhist Philosophy (Honolulu: The University Press of Hawaii, 1976), 60.

[11] The Story of the Buddha, 136.

[12] His Holiness Kyabje Trijang Rinpoche, “The Three Scopes,” (Ed.) Glen H. Mullen and Dr. Nicholas Ribush, Teachings at Tushita (New Delhi: Mahayana Publications, 1981), 41-42.

[13] The feeling of responsibility for the liberation of all sentient beings. One who has this feeling is a bodhisattva.

[14] “The Three Scopes,” 42.

[15] His Holiness the Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso, An Open Heart (New York: Little, Brown, and Company, 2001), 178.

[19] Shantideva, The Bodhicaryavatara (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995) 96.

[20] Buddhism and Zen, 269-270.

[21] Thich Nhat Hanh, Vietnam: Lotus in a Sea of Fire (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967), 99.

[22] The Story of Buddhism, 132.

[23] Kumarajiva, translated by Kubo Tsugunari and Yuyama Akira, The Lotus Sutra (Berkeley, CA: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 1993), 297-298.

[24] The teaching or doctrine of the Buddha

[25] Buddhism and Zen, 67.

[28] Thich Nhat Hanh, “Love in Action” quoted in Buddhism and Zen, 174.

[29] Daniel Berrigan and Thich Nhat Hanh, The Raft is Not the Shore (Boston: Beacon Press, 1975), 60-61.

[30] “The importance is not to take one’s life, but to burn. What he really aims at is the expression of his will and determination, not death.” Lotus in a Sea of Fire, 106.

[31] Nhat Hanh and Thien-An both state that self-immolation is sacrifice rather than suicide because suicide is a destructive act made out of hopelessness. Self-immolation, on the other hand, represents a constructive act with the hope of achieving awareness and compassion. See Lotus in a Sea of Fire, 107 and Buddhism and Zen, 268-269.

[32] There is also a very famous poem written by Vu-Hoang-Chuong about Quang Duc called Compassionate Fire. Buddhism and Zen, 174.

[33] Lawrence Fine, “Contemplative Death in Jewish Mystical Tradition,” from (Ed.) Margaret Cormack, Sacrificing the Self: Perspectives on Martyrdom and Religion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 93-94.